a major continuous landmass on Earth
seven continents: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South America
shaped by plate tectonics over billions of years through rifting, collision, and drift
arrangement determines ocean currents, climate zone distribution, and biome placement
supercontinents form and break apart cyclically: Pangaea, Gondwana, Rodinia
each continent carries distinct geological history, soil types, and evolutionary lineages
continental shelves extend underwater, hosting rich coral reef and marine ecosystems