device storing chemical energy and converting it to electrical energy on demand

electrochemical cell: anode, cathode, electrolyte, separator

types: lithium-ion, lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride, solid-state, sodium-ion, flow

lithium-ion dominates portable electronics, EVs, and grid storage

solid-state batteries promise higher energy density and safety

charge/discharge cycles degrade capacity over time (calendar and cycle aging)

energy density measured in Wh/kg (gravimetric) and Wh/L (volumetric)

enables mobile engine electrification and renewable energy time-shifting

recycling recovers lithium, cobalt, nickel, reducing mining pressure

semiconductor battery management systems control charge, temperature, and cell balancing

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