- transformation of production and society, 1760-1840, originating in Britain
- steam engine, spinning jenny, power loom, iron smelting with coke
- shift from manual labor and animal power to mechanized energy systems
- factory system replaced cottage industry, urbanization accelerated
- fossil fuels (coal, then oil) as primary energy source
- railways, telegraphs, mass production, standardized parts
- population explosion, colonial expansion, labor movements
- preceded by the Renaissance, led directly to the Information Age
- redefined the relationship between knowledge, energy, and material transformation